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lundi 1 février 2016

February

February
February
February 2016-02-01
February 2016
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February (/ËˆfÉ›bjuËËŒÉ›ri/ or /ËˆfÉ›bruËËŒÉ›ri/ FEB-ew-ERR-ee or FEB-roo-ERR-ee) is the second month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. It is the shortest month and the only month with fewer than 30 days. The month has 28 days in common years or 29 days in leap years.
February is the third month of meteorological winter in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, February is the third month of summer (the seasonal equivalent of August in the Northern Hemisphere, in meteorological reckoning).

History

The Roman month Februarius was named after the Latin term februum, which means purification, via the purification ritual Februa held on February 15 (full moon) in the old lunar Roman calendar. January and February were the last two months to be added to the Roman calendar, since the Romans originally considered winter a monthless period. They were added by Numa Pompilius about 713 BC. February remained the last month of the calendar year until the time of the decemvirs (c. 450 BC), when it became the second month. At certain intervals February was truncated to 23 or 24 days, and a 27-day intercalary month, Intercalaris, was inserted immediately after February to realign the year with the seasons.
Under the reforms that instituted the Julian calendar, Intercalaris was abolished, leap years occurred regularly every fourth year, and in leap years February gained a 29th day. Thereafter, it remained the second month of the calendar year, meaning the order that months are displayed (January, February, March, ..., December) within a year-at-a-glance calendar. Even during the Middle Ages, when the numbered Anno Domini year began on March 25 or December 25, the second month was February whenever all twelve months were displayed in order. The Gregorian calendar reforms made slight changes to the system for determining which years were leap years and thus contained a 29-day February.
Historical names for February include the Old English terms Solmonath (mud month) and Kale-monath (named for cabbage) as well as Charlemagne's designation Hornung. In Finnish, the month is called helmikuu, meaning "month of the pearl"; when snow melts on tree branches, it forms droplets, and as these freeze again, they are like pearls of ice. In Polish and Ukrainian, respectively, the month is called luty or Ð»ÑŽÑ‚Ð¸Ð¹, meaning the month of ice or hard frost. In Macedonian the month is sechko (ÑÐµÑ‡ÐºÐ¾), meaning month of cutting [wood]. In Czech, it is called Ãºnor, meaning month of submerging [of river ice]. Croatians call the month veljaÄa, whose meaning is unknown but may come from the word for "greater," a possible reference to the days increasing in length.
In Slovene, February is traditionally called sveÄan, related to icicles or Candlemas. This name originates from siÄan, written as sviÄan in the New Carniolan Almanac from 1775 and changed to its final form by Franc Metelko in his New Almanac from 1824. The name was also spelled seÄan, meaning "the month of cutting down of trees". In 1848, a proposal was put forward in Kmetijske in rokodelske novice by the Slovene Society of Ljubljana to call this month talnik (related to ice melting), but it did not stick. The idea was proposed by the priest and patriot BlaÅ¾ PotoÄnik. Another name of February in Slovene was vesnar, after the mythological character Vesna.

Pronunciation
February may be pronounced either as (/ËˆfÉ›bjuËËŒÉ›ri/ or /ËˆfÉ›bruËËŒÉ›ri/ FEB-ew-ERR-ee or FEB-roo-ERR-ee). Many people pronounce it as (/juË/ ew rather than /ruË/ roo), as if it were spelled "Feb-u-ary". This comes about by analogy with "January" (which ends in "-uary" but not "-ruary"), as well as by a dissimilation effect whereby having two "r"s close to each other causes one to change for ease of pronunciation.

Patterns
February starts on the same day of the week as both March and November in common years, and as August in leap years. February ends on the same day of the week as October every year and on the same day of the week as January in common years only. February starts on the same day of the week as June of the previous year in all years. February ends on the same day of the week as May of the previous year in common years and August and November of the previous year in leap years. February ends on the same day of the week as July of the following year in years immediately before common years and April and December of the following year in years immediately before leap years. February starts on the same day of the week as May of the following year in leap years and years immediately before leap years. In leap years, it is the only month that ends on the same weekday it began.
Having only 28 days in common years, it is the only month of the year that can pass without a single full moon. This last happened in 1999 and will next happen in 2018.
February is also the only month of the calendar that once every six years and twice every 11 years consecutively, either back into the past or forward into the future, will have four full 7-day weeks. In countries that start their week on a Monday, it occurs as part of a common year starting on Friday, in which February 1st is a Monday and the 28th is a Sunday, this was observed in 2010 and can be traced back 11 years to 1999, 6 years back to 1993, 11 years back to 1982, 11 years back to 1971 and 6 years back to 1965, and will be observed in 2021. In countries that start their week on a Sunday, it occurs in a common year starting on Thursday, with the next occurrence in 2026, and previous occurrences in 2015 (11 years earlier than 2026), 2009 (6 years earlier than 2015), 1998 (11 years earlier than 2009) and 1987 (11 years earlier than 1998). This works unless the pattern is broken by a skipped leap year, but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped unti
l 2100.

Observances
This list does not necessarily imply either official status nor general observance.

Month-long observances
American Heart Month (United States)
Black History Month (United States, Canada)
LGBT History Month (United Kingdom)
National Bird-Feeding Month (United States)
Season for Nonviolence: January 30-April 4 (International observance)

Non-Gregorian observances, 2016
22 Shevat (Hebrew Calendar, Chabad sect of Judaism only) - February 1
Lunar New Year (for calendars based on the traditional Chinese calendar)
Chinese New Year (Chinese calendar) - February 8
Korean New Year (Korean calendar - February 8
Táº¿t (Vietnamese calendar) - February 8
Tsagaan Sar (Mongolian calendar) - February 8

Losar (Tibetan calendar) - February 9
Hekate's Deipnon (Attic calendar, Hellenism) - February 9
Yom Kippur Katan - February 9
Noumenia (Attic calendar, Hellenism) - February 10
Rosh Chodesh of Adar I (Jewish Calendar) - February 10
Ganesh Jayanti (Hinduism) - February 11
Vasant Panchami (Hinduism) - February 13
Anthesteria - Pithoigia (Attic calendar, Hellenism) - February 20
Anthesteria - Choes (Attic calendar, Hellenism) - February 21
Anthesteria - Chytroi (Attic calendar, Hellenism) - February 22
Chotrul Duchen (Tibetan calendar) - February 22
Daeboreum (Korean calendar) - February 22
Magha Puja (Burmese calendar, Theravada) -February 22
Purim Katan (Hebrew Calendar) - February 23
Shushan Purim Katan (Hebrew Calendar) - February 24 (Note: neither observance here is to be confused with Purim itself, which is celebrated in March 2016)
Ayya Vaikunda Avataram (Ayyavazhi, Tamil calendar) - February 24-25
AyyÃ¡m-i-HÃ¡ (Bahai calendar) - February 26
Lesser Mysteries (Attic calendar, Hellenism) - February 29-March 6

Movable observances, 2016 dates
Israeli Apartheid Week: February 22-28 (United Kingdom), February 29-March 7 (Europe)
National Day of the Sun: (Argentina) Date varies based on providence
Monday closest to January 29 - February 1
Auckland Anniversary Day (parts of New Zealand)
First Week of February (first Monday, ending on Sunday) - February 1-7
Doppelganger Week
First Friday - February 5
National Wear Red Day (United States)
First Saturday - February 6
Ice Cream for Breakfast Day
First Sunday - February 7
Mother's Day (Kosovo)
Super Bowl (United States)
Second Monday - February 8
Family Day (Canada) (British Columbia)
Meal Monday (Scotland)
Second Saturday - February 13
International Purple Hijab Day
Second Sunday - February 14
Autism Sunday - United Kingdom
Children's Day (Cook Islands, Nauru, Niue, Tokelau, Cayman Islands)
Mother's Day (Norway)
World Marriage Day
Third Monday' - February 15
Family Day (Canada) (provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, and Saskatchewan)
President's Day: (United States)
Third Friday - February 19
Yukon Heritage Day (Canada)
Week of February 22 - February 21-27
National Engineers Week (U.S.)
Last Tuesday - February 23
World Spay Day
Last Friday - February 26
International Stand Up to Bullying Day
National Engineers Week (U.S.) - February 21-27
Last day of February - February 29
Rare Disease Day

Movable Western Christian Observances - 2016 dates
Fat Thursday - February 4
Festum Ovorum (University of Oxford) - February 6
Quinquagesima - February 7
Shrove Monday - February 8
Nickanan Night (Cornwall)
Rosenmontag (Germany)

Shrove Tuesday - February 9
Feast of the Holy Winding Sheet of Christ
Fastnacht (Pennsylvania Dutch)
Fettisdagen (Sweden)
Mardi Gras
National Pancake Day (Netherlands)
Powder Day (Tolox, Spain)
UÅ¾gavÄ—nÄ—s (Lithuania)

Ash Wednesday/Lent begins - February 10
National No Smoking Day (Ireland)

People's Sunday (Å»abbar, Malta) - February 14
Quadragesima Sunday - February 21

Movable Eastern Christian Observances - 2016 dates
Zacchaeus Sunday/Sunday of the Canaanite - February 14
Publican & Pharisee Sunday - February 21
Sunday of the Prodigal Son - February 28
Meatfare Week - February 28-March 6

Fixed observances
February 1
Air Force Day (Nicaragua)
Anniversary of the Abolition of Slavery (Mauritius)
Federal Territory Day (Kuala Lumpur, Labuan and Putrajaya, Malaysia)
Heroes' Day (Rwanda)
Imbolc (Ireland, Scotland, Isle of Man, and some Neopagan groups in the Northern hemisphere)
Memorial Day of the Republic (Hungary)
National Freedom Day (United States)
World Hijab Day

February 2
Candlemas
Groundhog Day (United States and Canada)
Marmot Day (Alaska, United States)

Inventors' Day (Thailand)

February 3
Setsubun (Japan)

February 4
Day of the Armed Struggle (Angola)
Independence Day (Sri Lanka)
Rosa Parks Day(may also be observed on December 1)
World Cancer Day

February 5
1917 Constitution of Mexico
National Weatherperson's Day

February 6
International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation
Ronald Reagan Day (California, United States)
Sami National Day
Waitangi Day (New Zealand)

February 7
February 8
Parinirvana Day (some traditions)
PreÅ¡eren Day(Slovenia)
Propose Day

February 9
February 10
February 11
Evelio Javier Day (Panay Island, Philippines)
Ski Trip (Inaba)
Inventors' Day(United States)
National Foundation Day (Japan)
Day of Revenue Service (Azerbaijan)
Youth Day(Cameroon)

February 12
Abraham Lincoln's birthday(United States)
Darwin Day
112 Day (Europe)
National Freedom to Marry Day
Georgia Day
Red Hand Day
Youth Day (Venezuela)

February 13
World Radio Day
Februa: February 13â€"15 (Ancient Rome)
Lupercalia: February 13â€"15 (Ancient Rome)
Parentalia: February 13â€"22 (Ancient Rome)

February 14
Singles Awareness Day
Valentine's Day
V-day

February 15
Serbia's National Day
National Flag of Canada Day
Parinirvana Day (some traditions)
Statehood Day (Serbia)
Susan B. Anthony Day (United States)

February 16
Aman Badhan's Birthday (United Kingdom)

February 17
Quirinalia (Ancient Rome)

February 18
February 19
February 20
World Day of Social Justice

February 21
Feralia (Ancient Rome)
International Mother Language Day
Language Movement Day (Bangladesh)

February 22
Caristia (Ancient Rome)
Independence Day in Saint Lucia
World Thinking Day

February 23
Defender of the Fatherland Day (several former Republics of the Soviet Union)
Mashramani-Republic Day (Guyana)
MeteÅ†i (Latvia)
National Day (Brunei)
Terminalia (Ancient Rome)

February 24
Dragobete(Romania)
Flag Day in Mexico: February 24
Independence Day (Estonia)
Regifugium (Ancient Rome)

February 25
Soviet Occupation Day (Georgia)
People Power Revolution (Philippines)

February 26
Liberation Day (Kuwait)
Day of Remembrance for Victims of Khojaly massacre (Azerbaijan)
National Wear Red Day: (United Kingdom)
Saviours' Day (Nation of Islam)

February 27
Dominican Republic Independence:
Equirria (Ancient Rome)
International Polar Bear Day

February 28
DÃa de AndalucÃa
National Science Day

February 29
Leap Day (Every four years, with some exceptions)

welcome to February

Its birth flower is the violet (Viola) and the common primrose (Primula vulgaris).
Its birthstone is the amethyst. It symbolizes piety, humility, spiritual wisdom, and sincerity.
Its zodiac signs are Aquarius (until February 18) and Pisces (February 19 onwards).

References

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http://www.wincalendar.com/February-Calendar/February-2016-Calendar.html&hl=en
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http://softcam-keys.blogspot.com/search/?q=February
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Forth_Road_Bridge

By Unknown 18:03 No comments

Forth_Road_Bridge
Forth_Road_Bridge
Forth_Road_Bridge 2016-02-01
Forth_Road_Bridge 2016
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The Forth Road Bridge is an often closed suspension bridge in east central Scotland. The bridge, opened in 1964, spans the Firth of Forth, connecting Edinburgh, at Queensferry, to Fife, at North Queensferry. It replaced a centuries-old ferry service to carry vehicular traffic, cyclists, and pedestrians across the Forth; rail crossings are made by the adjacent and historic Forth Bridge.
Issues regarding the continued tolling of the bridge, and those over its deteriorating condition and proposals to have it replaced or supplemented by an additional crossing, have caused it to become something of a political football for the Scottish Parliament, which eventually voted to scrap tolls on the bridge from 11 February 2008.
On 4 December 2015, the bridge was closed to all vehicular traffic, pedestrians and cyclists due to structural issues. Originally planned not to reopen until 4 January 2016, the bridge reopened to all traffic except heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) on 23 December 2015, and is expected to reopen to HGVs around mid-February 2016.

History
The first crossing at what is now the site of the bridge was established in the 11th century by Margaret, queen consort of King Malcolm III, who founded a ferry service to transport religious pilgrims from Edinburgh to Dunfermline Abbey and St Andrews. Its creation gave rise to the port towns of Queensferry and North Queensferry, which remain to this day; and the service remained in uninterrupted use as a passenger ferry for over eight hundred years. As early as the 1740s there were proposals for a road crossing at the site, although their viability was only considered following the construction of the Forth Bridge in 1890.
The importance of the crossing to vehicular traffic was underpinned when the Great Britain road numbering scheme was drawn up in the 1920s. The planners wished the arterial A9 road to be routed across the Forth here, although the unwillingness to have a ferry crossing as part of this route led to the A90 number being assigned instead.
There was a period of renewed lobbying for a road crossing in the 1920s and 1930s, at which time the only vehicle crossing was a single passenger and vehicle ferry. Sir William Denny championed the expansion of that service in the 1930s, providing and operating on behalf of the London and North Eastern Railway two additional ferries that aimed to supplement the services of the adjacent railway bridge. Their success allowed for the addition of two more craft in the 1940s and 1950s, by which time the ferries were making 40,000 crossings annually, carrying 1.5 million passengers and 800,000 vehicles.

Design
With the then newest and nearest bridge spanning the Forth (the Kincardine Bridge, built in 1936) still around 15 miles (24 km) upstream, the upsurge in demand for a road crossing between Edinburgh and Fife prompted the UK Government to establish the Forth Road Bridge Joint Board (FRBJB) by Act of Parliament in 1947 to oversee the implementation of a new bridge to replace the ferry service. In 1955 the authorities on either side investigated and drew up an alternative scheme for a tunnel beneath the estuary. This was known as the Maunsell Scheme, and was projected to run somewhat closer to the rail bridge than the present road bridge. The scheme was abandoned as being too ambitious and reverted to a bridge concept.

Construction

The final construction plan was accepted in February 1958 and work began in September of that year. Mott, Hay and Anderson and Freeman Fox and Partners carried out the design work and a joint venture of Sir William Arrol & Co., Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company and Dorman Long constructed the bridge at a cost of Â£11.5 million, while the total cost of the project including road connections and realignments was Â£19.5 million.
It was the longest steel suspension bridge in Europe. 210,000 tons of concrete were involved in its construction, with nine miles of grade-separated dual-carriageway approach roads. Reed and Mallik (known for Reema construction of houses) of Salisbury, Wiltshire, built the approach viaducts.
There were twenty four individual bridges built for the approach roads. The 4.5-mile southern approach road of the A90 began at Cramond Bridge, over the River Almond on the western outskirts of Edinburgh, near Craigiehall. There were two-level interchanges built at Burnshot, Dolphington (B924) and the Echline junction (A904 and B800). At Dalmeny there was a bridge over the railway. The southern approach roads were built by A.M. Carmichael Ltd. The 4-mile northern approach road had three two-level junctions at Ferry Toll (for the B980), Admiralty (for Rosyth Dockyard via the A985, and Inverkeithing via the A921) and at Mastertown/Masterton (for what would be the fledgling M90 southern terminus). The Masterton junction was an octopus junction, a variation of a clover-leaf junction, having six bridges and a 600 ft viaduct. There were fifteen bridges built for this approach road. The northern approach road terminated as the A823(M) at a roundabout with the A823 south of Dunfermline, next
to Rosyth railway station. The northern approach roads were built by Whatlings Ltd of Glasgow, later bought by Alfred McAlpine.
Seven lives were lost during construction before the bridge was opened by Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh on 4 September 1964. The ferry service was discontinued as of that date.

Operation
The bridge's management was delegated to the FRBJB, and remained so until 2002 when its operation was transferred to a new body with a wider remit, the Forth Estuary Transport Authority.
On 1 December 2010 the bridge was closed for the first time due to heavy snow. After several accidents meant snowploughs were unable to clear the carriageways, the bridge was closed in both directions at 6.40 a.m. and remained closed for several hours. As part of celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of the bridge's operation, artist Kate Downie was commissioned to create a print of the bridge and hold an exhibition of works portraying it.
On 1 June 2015 Amey took over the maintenance and operating of the bridge on behalf of Transport Scotland from the Forth Estuary Transport Authority and are now called the Forth Bridges Unit.

Statistics

The bridge's central main span is 1,006 metres (3,301 ft) long, its two side spans are each 408 metres (1,339 ft) long, and the approach viaducts are 252 metres (827 ft) on the north side and 438 metres (1,437 ft) on the south side. At a total length of 2,512 metres (8,241 ft), it was the longest suspension bridge span outside the United States and the fourth-longest span in the world at the time of its construction. The bridge comprises 39,000 tonnes of steel and 115,000 cubic metres of concrete. The towers reach 156 metres (512 ft) above mean water level. Its width comprises a dual carriageway road with two lanes in each direction bounded by cycle/footpaths on each side. The main strung cables are 590 millimetres (23 in) in diameter and each cable carries 13,800 tonnes of the bridge's load suspended by 11,618 high tensile wires, each five millimetres in diameter.
The bridge forms a crucial part of the corridor between south-east and north-east Scotland, linking Edinburgh to Perth, Dundee and Aberdeen by the A90 road and its sister M90 motorway, which begins 1.67 miles (2.69 km) north of the bridge's northern terminus. The bridge carried around 2.5 million vehicles in its first year but the annual figure has risen steadily over time to around 21.4 million vehicles in 2008. The bridge carried its 250 millionth vehicle in 2002.
It was awarded Historic Scotland's Category A listed structure status in 2001.

Tolling issues
On 11 February 2008 tolls were abolished on the bridge.
Initially, it was suggested that tolling would cease once the original cost of construction plus the accrued interest was repaid â€" this was done in 1993 and it was planned that tolls would not be levied after May 1995. However, the legislation enabling the levying of tolls was instead renewed by Parliament (originally that of the UK but now the responsibility of the Scottish Parliament) on three separate occasions in 1998, 2003 and 2006.
Originally, a toll was paid for each direction of travel with sets of toll booths on both carriageways. In 1997, a decision was made to double the northbound toll (then 40p, to 80p) and remove the southbound toll. The belief was that almost all traffic makes a return journey across the bridge, and that the removal of the southbound toll would result in a reduction of congestion for southbound traffic without reducing overall toll revenues.
The Forth Estuary Transport Authority (FETA) justified the continued use of tolls by suggesting they were necessary to fund maintenance and improvement works. These included the construction of defences around the submerged piers forming the bases of the main towers in the event of collision in the Firth. The main towers were also strengthened with internal steel columns (the original tower structure was hollow) and had hydraulic rams jack up these sections to transfer a portion of the load to the new steelwork. Also, the vertical cables suspending the deck had their bolts replaced after a single detected failure. A new paint system required development for the bridge (the original was phased out due to environmental concerns).

Variable tolling proposals
In late 2005, FETA's committee approved a proposal for a complete revamp of the system of toll levies. The minimum toll would be set to the existing Â£1 figure, but would increase dependent on the time of day, rising to a maximum of Â£4 for evening rush hour travel. All tolls would be halved for cars with more than one occupant, as an incentive to drivers to share cars and make fewer journeys. According to FETA's chairman Lawrence Marshall, the system would provide the most efficiency, claiming that 80% of peak-time journeys are made by single-occupant vehicles. The proposal, passed with the chairman's casting vote after the committee was deadlocked, was referred to the Scottish Executive in December 2005, and implementation planned for October 2007 subject to approval by transport minister Tavish Scott. Environmental groups welcomed the proposal, although local politicians condemned it as simply a means of raising capital. At the same time, a counter-argument was tabled by Fife coun
cillors proposing the complete removal of tolls.
The Scottish Parliament debated the proposals in January 2006, and the affair became a major political issue after Westminster-based MPs Gordon Brown and Alistair Darling (Chancellor of the Exchequer and Secretary of State for Scotland respectively) were seen to describe the variable tolling plan as "dead in the water". Scottish First Minister Jack McConnell insisted his Labour Party colleagues were misquoted and himself refused to rule out the plan, receiving considerable condemnation from the opposition Scottish National Party.
The political situation was particularly important given that by late January 2006, campaigning was under way for the Dunfermline and West Fife by-election, 2006 scheduled to take place for the Westminster constituency in which the north end of the bridge is situated. The by-election, scheduled for 9 February, was contested by - in addition to the major political parties in Scotland - an Abolish Forth Bridge Tolls Party. It was won by Liberal Democrat candidate Willie Rennie, overturning a large Labour majority on a 16% swing.
In the aftermath of the by-election defeat, media speculation suggested the Executive had turned against the proposals, and Tavish Scott eventually confirmed their rejection and the retention of the existing toll structure on 1 March 2006. FETA condemned the decision, while local opposition MSPs charged the minister that his tolling review short-changed Fifers as tolls were axed on the Erskine Bridge leaving tolls on only the Forth and Tay Road Bridge.

Abolition
Following the formation of an SNP minority government after the Scottish parliamentary election of May 2007, a new debate on the abolition of tolls was opened by Transport Minister Stewart Stevenson on 31 May 2007, where it was agreed by a large majority. Toll levies at that point totalled Â£16 million annually.
The Abolition of Bridge Tolls (Scotland) Bill, required to revoke legislation mandating toll collection on the bridge, was introduced to the Scottish Parliament on 3 September 2007, passed on 20 December 2007, and received royal assent on 24 January 2008. The tolls were removed on 11 February 2008 at 00:01 GMT. Ironically this immediately followed a major upgrade and reconfiguration of the tolls on the northbound carriageway (the toll on the southbound carriageway had been removed some years before, simplifying the arrangement as most journeys were, and remain, two-way).

Structural issues

There has been concern at FETA over the structural wear-and-tear of the bridge. The planned theoretical capacity for the bridge (30,000 vehicles per day in each direction) is routinely exceeded as traffic levels have outstripped predictions. FETA predicted that traffic could rise to an average of 40,000 vehicles per day in each direction by 2010, while the Scottish Government stated that 60,000 vehicles travel on more than half the days in a year. This raised concerns about the lifespan of the bridge, originally planned at 120 years.
2003 saw an inspection programme launched (at a cost of Â£1.2 million) to assess the condition of the bridge's main suspension cables after excessive corrosion was discovered in a number of older bridges in the United States of a similar design and size. The study, which was completed in 2005, found that the main cables had suffered an estimated 8â€"10% loss of strength. Future projections highlight the likelihood of an accelerating loss of strength, with traffic restrictions to limit loading required in 2014 in the worst-case scenario, followed by full closure as early as 2020.
Further monitoring and remedial work is now under way. An acoustic monitoring system, commissioned in August 2006, uses listening devices to monitor any further strands snapping and pinpoint their location within the main cables.
Given the significance of the findings of the first internal inspection, in November 2005 the Scottish Executive appointed Flint & Neill Partnership to audit the results. The purpose of the audit was to carry out a desk study of the findings and to advise the Scottish Executive whether those findings were reached using a process of appropriate rigour and whether the conclusions were reasonable. Flint & Neill appointed New Yorkâ€"based Ammann & Whitney to act as sub-consultants providing specialist advice using experience gained from inspections and assessments carried out in America. In January 2006, an audit report to the Scottish Executive concluded that FETA's consultant had performed the initial internal inspection and cable strength calculation in accordance with accepted practice in the United States and in general conformance with accepted industry guidelines published in 2004 by the NCHRP. Flint & Neill noted that the initial investigation by FETA "was not prompted by the dis
covery of any concerns with the Forth Road Bridge cables but as a prudent response to the results of findings in the USA. When the original scope for this initial investigation was determined, the severity of the findings was not anticipated." The audit report suggested that traffic restrictions could be required as early as 2013.
A number of options are being implemented to increase the bridge's lifespan. These include an extensive dehumidification programme to slow the rate of corrosion in the main cables by installing a system that will keep the air in the voids between the strands that make up the main cables at a humidity level of below 40%. Engineering consultants Faber Maunsell began work on the project in 2006. The works are planned to take two and a half years at a cost of Â£7.8 million. As part of the works, some of the corroded cable strands are to be spliced.
The southbound carriageway of the bridge was closed on 1 December 2015 due to the discovery of steelwork defects during routine inspections. Subsequently a 7.5 tonne weight limit was put in place (public service buses were not included). On 4 December, the bridge was fully closed because of structural faults and was initially not expected to reopen until the new year following further inspections and repair work. Following the closure, Transport Scotland began work to lay on extra trains and buses and consider whether to reintroduce a ferry service to mitigate the impact on travellers. The closure has resulted in tailbacks approaching the Kincardine Bridge, which is the alternative route across the Forth from Fife to Edinburgh. On 22 December it was announced that the Road Bridge would reopen the following day for all traffic except heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), with current expectations being that the bridge will reopen to HGVs around mid-February.

2016 Public Inquiry
On Wednesday 20 January Scottish Parliament begain its inquiry led by the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee (ICI), to determine the circumstances that led to the discovery of a cracked truss in the bridge's undercarriage. Evidence was heard from; Forth Estuary Transport Authority (Feta), Transport minister Derek Mackay, engineers and officials from Amey along with a number of other expects and key personnel.
On the first day, Richard Hornby, of engineering consulting firm Arup, stated, since 2001, the trust end in question had been inspected 23 times and there was no fault found. It was reveled a pin had seized up, which was cause of the trust end to crack, and was only the quality of the steel which had stopped it cracking appearing earlier. Hornby also made clear even if the seizured pin had been picked up earlier it was "virtually impossible" to lubricate the bearing.
Several witnesses told MSPs a decision by previous operator Forth Estuary Transport Authority (Feta) not to proceed with a Â£15 million truss end link replacement project in 2010 had been â€œreasonableâ€ and â€œproportionateâ€. This claim was rebutted by Barry Colford, former chief engineer and bridgemaster at the Forth Estuary Transport Authority, who said "The list of works which included truss end links repairs, was not a wish list, needed to be done in our professional opinionâ€ Lesley Hinds, Fetaâ€™s former convener, highlight the bridge budget had been cut by 58% in 2011, while senior staff at Feta had â€œdeep concernsâ€ about the transfer of bridge management to a private company. "There can be no doubt that Transport Scotland were well aware of Feta boardâ€™s concerns about loss of key staff and the threat that this would have on the future management and maintenance of the bridge".

Additional crossing at Queensferry

The strategic transport importance of the road bridge and the threat of closure by 2020 if major structural work were not undertaken led to fears of serious economic consequences, especially as work on any new crossing could take a decade.
Increasing traffic levels across the Firth of Forth had also led to the construction of the Clackmannanshire Bridge adjacent to the existing Kincardine Bridge. This bridge opened in November 2008.
Proposals for a second road crossing at Queensferry had been made in the 1990s, but were subsequently shelved, despite preliminary work on route selection. Following the discovery of potentially serious structural issues with the Forth Road Bridge in 2005 the proposals were revisited and plans advanced. The decision to proceed with a replacement bridge was taken at the end of 2007, and it was announced the following year that the existing bridge would be retained, as a public transport link. The Forth Crossing Act received Royal Assent in January 2011, and construction began in September 2011. The Queensferry Crossing is being constructed as a cable-stayed bridge, with an overall length of 1.7 miles (2.7 km). Around 2.5 miles (4.0 km) of new connecting roads are being built, including new and upgraded junctions at Ferrytoll in Fife, South Queensferry, and Junction 1a on the M9. The new bridge will continue the M90 motorway, (extending its southern terminus) from Admiralty to the M9 j
unction 1a (re-numbering the M9 spur).

See also

List of bridges in Scotland
List of longest suspension bridge spans

References

External links
Official website
Forth Estuary Transport Authority
Bridges Visitor Centre Trust - Home Page

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Camping

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Camping
Camping
Camping 2016-02-01
Camping 2016
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Camping is an elective outdoor recreational activity. Generally held, participants leave developed areas to spend time outdoors in more natural ones in pursuit of activities providing them enjoyment. To be regarded as "camping" a minimum of one night is spent outdoors, distinguishing it from day-tripping, picnicking, and other similarly short-term recreational activities. Camping can be enjoyed through all four seasons.
Camping may involve sheltering in the open air, a tent, caravan, motorhome, or primitive structure. Luxury may be an element, as in early 20th century African safaris, but including accommodations in fully equipped fixed structures such as high-end sporting camps under the banner of "camping" blurs the line.
Camping as a recreational activity became popular among elites in the early 20th century. With time, it grew more democratic, and varied. Modern participants frequent publicly owned natural resources such as national and state parks, wilderness areas, and commercial campgrounds. Camping is a key part of many youth organizations around the world, such as Scouting, which use it to teach both self-reliance and teamwork.

Definition

Camping describes a range of activities and approaches to outdoor accommodation. Survivalist campers set off with as little as possible to get by, whereas recreational vehicle travelers arrive equipped with their own electricity, heat, and patio furniture. Camping may be combined with hiking, as in backpacking, and is often enjoyed in conjunction with other outdoor activities such as canoeing, climbing, fishing, and hunting.
There is no universally held definition of what is and what is not camping. Fundamentally, it reflects a combination of intent and the nature of activities involved. A children's summer camp with dining hall meals and bunkhouse accommodations may have "camp" in its name but fails to reflect the spirit and form of "camping" as it is broadly understood. Similarly, a homeless person's lifestyle may involve many common camping activities, such as sleeping out and preparing meals over a fire, but fails to reflect the elective nature and pursuit of spirit rejuvenation that are integral aspect of camping. Likewise, cultures with itinerant lifestyles or lack of permanent dwellings cannot be said to be "camping", it is just their way of life.

History

The history of recreational camping is often traced back to Thomas Hiram Holding, a British travelling tailor, but it was actually first popularised in the UK on the river Thames. By the 1880s large numbers of visitors took part in the pastime, which was connected to the late Victorian craze for pleasure boating. The early camping equipment was very heavy, so it was convenient to transport it by boat or to use craft that converted into tents. Although Thomas Hiram Holding is often seen as the father of modern camping in the UK, he was responsible for popularising a different type of camping in the early twentieth century. He experienced the activity in the wild from his youth, when he had spent much time with his parents traveling across the American prairies. Later he embarked on a cycling and camping tour with some friends across Ireland. His book on his Ireland experience, Cycle and Camp in Connemara led to the formation of the first camping group in 1901, the Association of Cycle
Campers, later to become the Camping and Caravanning Club. He wrote The Campers Handbook in 1908, so that he could share his enthusiasm for the great outdoors with the world.
Possibly the first commercial camping ground in the world was Cunninghamâ€™s camp, near Douglas, Isle of Man, which opened in 1894. In 1906 the Association of Cycle Campers opened its first own camping site, in Weybridge. By that time the organization had several hundred members. In 1910 the Association was merged into the National Camping Club. Although WW1 was responsible for a certain hiatus in camping activity, the association received a new lease of life after the war when Sir Robert Baden-Powell (founder of the Boy Scouts movement) became its president.
The International Federation of Camping Clubs (Federation Internationale de Camping et de Caravanning) was founded in 1932 with national clubs from all over the world affiliating with it. By the 1960s camping had become an established family holiday standard and today camp sites are ubiqitous across Europe and North America.

Forms

Adventure camping
Adventure camping is a form of camping by people who race (possibly adventure racing or mountain biking) during the day, and camp in a minimalist way at night. They might use the basic items of camping equipment such as a micro-camping stove, sleeping bag, and bivouac bag.

Dry camping
Dry camping is camping at a site without a reliable preexisting water source; such locations are known as dry camps. Campers must carry their own water in and out of camp, which requires much more preparation than would otherwise be required. Dry camping is very common in deserts, and is often preferred due to the risk of flash floods.

Backpacking

Backpacking affords a maximum wilderness experience. Specialized gear allows enthusiasts to both enjoy popular local recreational spots and access the most remote locations.
Technological advance and consumer interest in camping have led to lighter and more diverse backpacking gear. Improvements such as titanium cookware, ultra-light wicking fabrics, and heat-molded hip straps make for lighter loads and enhanced performance. As there is always the possibility of severe weather and injury in the backcountry, cell and satellite phones are sometimes carried for emergencies, with varying coverage.
Backpacking may involve riding or being accompanied by pack animals such as horses, mules, and llama. These increase carrying capacity at the expense of trail condition.
Ultralight backpacking enthusiasts bring as little as possible while camping, inherently producing a smaller footprint and minimalized impact on a wilderness environment. The choice to camp with less, or even the minimum necessary to survive, may be a matter of preference (where it may overlap with "survivalist" style camping) or reflect the activity being pursued. Camping while engaging in such back-country activities as rock climbing and cross-country skiing puts a premium on the amount of gear that can effectively be carried, thus lending to a less rather than more approach.

Canoe Camping
Canoe camping is similar to backpacking, and often affords much more weight and bulk to be carried when extended portaging is not involved. Electric motors or small gas ones may be attached on some canoes, where allowed, for a faster journey on the water. Waterproof bags and fishing gear are common gear.

Bicycle Camping
Bicycle camping combines camping with cycling, both in developed and natural areas. A form of bicycle camping that has become popular in some parts of the world involves cycling organisations offering organised multi-day rides and providing riders with facilities and luggage transport. The Great Victorian Bike Ride in Australia is one of the oldest and most successful examples of this, operating since 1984 and involving thousands of riders on a nine-day journey of around 550 kilometres (340 mi) each year.
Motorcycle camping is more similar to bicycle camping than car camping due to limited storage capacity. Lightweight, compact backpacking equipment is used.

Car, Off-Road, and RV

These forms of camping involve using a powered vehicle as an essential element of the camping experience.

Glamping

Glamping (glamorous camping) is a growing global phenomenon that combines camping with the luxury and amenities of a home or hotel. Its roots are in the early 1900s European and American safaris in Africa. Wealthy travellers accustomed to comfort and luxury did not want to sacrifice either, and their campsites and pampered wilderness lifestyles reflected it.

Reenactment camping

Reenactment camping employs the methods and equipment appropriate to a specific historic era for personal enjoyment and other purposes such as instruction and entertainment. Historical reenactors seek to replicate the conditions and technologies of such periods as the Wild West, American Civil War, and Medieval times.

Social camping

Many campers enjoy socializing with small groups of fellow campers. Such groups will arrange events throughout the year to allow members with similar interests or from similar geographical areas in order to collaborate. This allows families to form small close-knit societies, and children to form lasting friendships. There are two large organizations in the UK who facilitate this sort of camping: the Caravan Club and the Camping and Caravanning Club.
Some who participate in this sort of camping feel that it brings a closer form of bonding, as members become more mutually dependent than they would otherwise be in modern society. Social camping can also build more of a bond between members of the same family and between different families. It is common for many campers to organize this type of activities with their friends or neighbors. Social camping goes beyond uniting families and it may also give the opportunity for lonely campers to enjoy this type of activity with individuals who share their enthusiasm in this matter.
Because of the bonding this type of camping promotes, it can also be used as a personnel training facility. In fact, many companies offer their employees this type of training because it helps connect people who do not necessarily know each other but who need to work in the same environment and need to get along successfully. Including this type of activity in a personnel training package is becoming more and more popular and it is also recommended because of the benefits it brings.
In more recent years, those who camp alone have been able to share their experiences with other campers, through blogs and online social networking. There are many online websites especially designed for people who are looking for camping companions or for those who only want to share their experiences with other people. In this case, campers may provide the others with useful tips resulting from their own experience. Individuals who are willing to camp are likely to access this type of websites and connect with other campers, especially if they are novices, because it gives them the opportunity to learn more about this activity.

PitchPlace Camping
PitchPlace camping, or more commonly known simply as PitchPlacing, is the sharing of yards as free tent pitches, facilitated by a free hospitality exchange and social network at PitchPlace.org. Following a similar track to CouchSurfing, users send requests to pitch in members yards around the world.

Survivalist camping
Survivalist campers learn the skills needed to survive in any outdoor situation. This activity may require skills in obtaining food from the wild, emergency medical treatments, orienteering, and pioneering.

Urban camping
Urban camping is what it sounds like, and has its own unique set of circumstances. See Occupy Wall Street for a protest movement that involved elements of urban camping in a non-recreational form of extended outdoor accommodation.

Winter camping

Winter camping characteristically refers to wilderness camping in cold seasons in temperate climates, which typically include snow, rather than in areas where snow is present year-round (such as in arctic regions or mountains high enough to maintain permanent snow cover). It puts a premium on high quality and lightness of gear, experience, and nerve â€" as risks may include frostbite and becoming snowbound.
In addition to packing shelters such as tents or bivouac gear, alternative shelter-building skills are key, such as for snow caves and igloos. Wicking clothing suitable for layering and a regard for appropriate nutrition and food preparation are key.

Workcamping
Workcamping allows campers to trade their labor variously for discounts on campsite fees, campground utilities, and even some degree of pay. Workcamping is usually seasonal, from May to October, although in warm weather areas such as Florida and Arizona, it can be year round. Workcamping is prevalent among retired travelers, who often own their own recreational vehicles. They will trade labor at campground tasks, such as maintenance, against fees. Camp host programs favor trades of participation in hospitality roles, such as introducing new visitors to campground facilities and organizing group activities.

Camping equipment

The equipment used in camping varies with by intended activity. For instance, in survival camping the equipment consists of small items which have the purpose of helping the camper in providing food, heat and safety. The equipment used in this type of camping must be lightweight and it is restricted to the mandatory items. Other types of camping such as winter camping involve having specially designed equipment in terms of tents or clothing which is strong enough to protect the camper's body from the wind and cold.
Survival camping involves certain items that campers are recommended to have with them in case something goes wrong and they need to be rescued. A survival kit includes mandatory items which are small and must fit in one's pocket or which otherwise could be carried on one's person. This kit is useless in these circumstances if it is kept in the backpack that is left in camp. Such a kit should include a small metal container which can be used to heat water over a campfire, a small length of duct tape which can prove useful in many situations, and an emergency space blanket. These blankets are specially designed to occupy minimal space and are perfect for making emergency shelters, keeping the camper warm. Also because of the aluminum-like color this blanket is reflective which means it can be easily seen from an aircraft. Candle stubs are good in starting a fire as well as in warming an enclosed space. One or two band-aids are mandatory in this type of camping. Any camper, and not onl
y the survival ones, need waterproof matches or a lighter and a large safety pin or fish hook which can be used in fishing. Rubber gloves, antiseptic wipes, tinfoil, jackknife, or halazone tablets (which purify the water) are also to be included into a survival kit. Although these seem too many items to be carried on one person, they are in fact small, lightweight and definitely useful.
Winter camping can be dangerous without respecting the basic rules when it comes to this particular activity.
Firstly, the cold is protected against with clothing of three types of layers as follows: a liner layer against the camper's skin (longjohns), an insulation layer (fleece), and a water- and wind-proof outer shell. Although cotton is one of the best quality fabrics there is, it is not recommended to be worn on winter camping because if it gets wet it dries out very slowly and the wearer could freeze. Rather than cotton, winter campers should wear wool or synthetic materials. The boots must be waterproof and the head must be protected against the cold. Although it seems a good choice, campers are advised not to wear too many pairs of socks as they might restrict blood flow to the feet, resulting in cold feet. Gaiters should also be worn to avoid snow and rain wetting the boots.
Secondly, one should include carbohydrates into their diet to keep their body warm as well as to provide energy. Hydration is very important so winter campers should drink plenty of water to keep themselves well hydrated, noting that water stores must be kept from freezing.
Thirdly, the tent must be carefully chosen to shelter it from the wind.

List of common equipment

The following is a list of commonly used camping equipment:
First aid kit
Tent, lean-to, or other form of shelter
Hammer or mallet to drive tent stakes into the soil (hammer are often a claw hammer, which is also helpful for removing them)
Sleeping bag and/or blankets for warmth
Sleeping pad or air mattress to be placed underneath the sleeping bag for cushioning from stones and twigs, as well as for insulation from the ground
Lantern or flashlight
Hatchet, axe or saw for cutting firewood for a campfire
Fire starter or other ignition device for starting a campfire
Folding chairs for placement around campfire
Ropes for stringing clothes line and for securing the shelter
Tarp for adding additional layer of storm protection to a tent, and to shelter dining areas
Raincoat or poncho
Hiking boots
Fishing pole
Chuck box to hold camp kitchen items for food preparation, consumption and cleanup
Trash bags, for the handling of waste; see leave no trace
Cathole trowel for sanitation in areas where a toilet is not provided
Insect repellent, particularly one that has DEET
Sunscreen for protecting the skin
Personal care products and towel
Cooler to store perishables and beverages. If electricity is available, a thermoelectric or stirling engine cooler can be used without the need for ice. Campers at modern campgrounds will normally bring perishable foods in coolers while backcountry campers will bring non-perishable foods such as dried fruits, nuts, jerky, and MREs.
Beverages or portable water filter for areas that have access to rivers or lakes
Cooking implements such as a tripod chained grill, Dutch oven, or La Cotta clay pot can be used for cooking on a campfire. A portable stove can be used where campfires are forbidden or impractical. If using a campground with electricity, an electric frying pan or slow cooker can be used.
Firewood for campfires
Emergency Preparedness Kit
Multi-Tool or knife
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Much of the remaining needed camping equipment is commonly available in the home, including: dishes, pots and pans; however, many people opt not to use their home items, but instead utilize equipment better tailored for camping. These amenities include heavy plastic tableware and salt and pepper shakers with tops that close in order to shelter the shakers from rain. Old kitchen gear purchased from thrift stores or garage sales may also be used in place of home items as an alternative to buying specialized (and more expensive) camping equipment. Backpackers use lightweight and portable equipment.

Campgrounds and commercial campsites

Campers span a broad range of age, ability, and ruggedness, and campsites are designed in many ways as well. Many campgrounds have sites with facilities such as fire rings, barbecue grills, utilities, shared bathrooms and laundry, as well as access to nearby recreational facilities, but not all campsites have similar levels of development. Campsites can range from a patch of dirt, to a level, paved pad with sewer and electricity. (For more information on facilities, see the campsite and RV park articles.)
Todayâ€™s campers have a range of comforts available to them, whether their shelter is a tent or a recreational vehicle. Those choosing to camp closer to their car ("car camping") with a tent may have access to potable hot water, tent interior lighting and fans, and other technological changes to camping gear. For those camping in recreational vehicles (RVs), options may include air conditioning, bathrooms, kitchens, showers, and home theater systems. In the United States, Canada and Europe, some campgrounds offer hookups where recreational vehicles are supplied with electricity, water, and sewer services.
Other vehicles used for camping include motorcycles, touring bicycles, boats, canoes, pack animals, and even bush planes; although backpacking on foot is a popular alternative.

Tent camping sites often cost less than campsites with full amenities, and most allow direct access by car. Some "walk-in" sites lie a short walk away from the nearest road, but do not require full backpacking equipment. Those who seek a rugged experience in the outdoors prefer to camp with only tents, or with no shelter at all ("under the stars").
Although many people see in camping a chance to get out of the daily routine and improve their survival skills, others would rather benefit from the many amenities that campsites are nowadays equipped with. If a few decades ago camping meant a great deal of responsibility and knowledge about wild nature, today any individual who wants to spend a weekend away in the woods may also expect a high level of comfort.
The amenities that can be found in a campsite vary greatly, as do the prices campers must pay to use them. Usually, the most visited places tend to be more comfortable, more sought after, and more expensive. The cheapest option when it comes to camping still remains backpacking or tent camping, although it can lack some of the comforts of other options.
Many companies manufacturing camping accessories produce different types of equipment or gear that is intended to make camping a more comfortable activity. The gear used in camping is crucial and it can be a life saver. The right tent or food storage unit can easily save campers from insects or even bear attacks. The camping community has been known for its proclivity towards leaving unused gear at the trailhead for other hikers to use or swap.

By Country

United States
From 2012 to 2013, over 40 million Americans - 14% of the United States population - went camping with a net loss of only 423,955 participants. According to an infographic produced by Red Rover Camping and based on data from the 2014 American Camper Report published by the Coleman Company, Inc. and the Outdoor Foundation, camping in the United States is gaining popularity after losing a net of 4.2 million participants from 2011 to 2012.

United Kingdom
According to data provided by the Great British Tourism Survey conducted by Visit England, almost 4.5 million camping and caravanning holidays were taken by British residents during the first half of 2015, for an average of 3.7 nights. As with the United States, camping is gaining popularity, with an 8% increase in trips versus the same period of 2014.
A survey conducted by Campsites.co.uk in 2014 showed that campers planned to take three trips or more each year, with 78% spending 3 nights or more away. July and August were, by far, the most popular months for camping, with fewer than 2% of respondents opting to camp during winter months.

See also

References

External links
Images of historic camping and hiking on the Long Trail, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Library
Reflections of Summer: Car Camping! Video produced by Oregon Field Guide

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vendredi 29 janvier 2016

Forth_Road_Bridge

By Unknown 17:45 No comments

Forth_Road_Bridge
Forth_Road_Bridge
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The Forth Road Bridge is a suspension bridge in east central Scotland. The bridge, opened in 1964, spans the Firth of Forth, connecting Edinburgh, at Queensferry, to Fife, at North Queensferry. It replaced a centuries-old ferry service to carry vehicular traffic, cyclists, and pedestrians across the Forth; rail crossings are made by the adjacent and historic Forth Bridge.
Issues regarding the continued tolling of the bridge, and those over its deteriorating condition and proposals to have it replaced or supplemented by an additional crossing, have caused it to become something of a political football for the Scottish Parliament, which eventually voted to scrap tolls on the bridge from 11 February 2008.
On 4 December 2015, the bridge was closed to all vehicular traffic, pedestrians and cyclists due to structural issues. Originally planned not to reopen until 4 January 2016, the bridge reopened to all traffic except heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) on 23 December 2015, and is expected to reopen to HGVs around mid-February 2016.

HistoryEdit
The first crossing at what is now the site of the bridge was established in the 11th century by Margaret, queen consort of King Malcolm III, who founded a ferry service to transport religious pilgrims from Edinburgh to Dunfermline Abbey and St Andrews. Its creation gave rise to the port towns of Queensferry and North Queensferry, which remain to this day; and the service remained in uninterrupted use as a passenger ferry for over eight hundred years. As early as the 1740s there were proposals for a road crossing at the site, although their viability was only considered following the construction of the Forth Bridge in 1890.
The importance of the crossing to vehicular traffic was underpinned when the Great Britain road numbering scheme was drawn up in the 1920s. The planners wished the arterial A9 road to be routed across the Forth here, although the unwillingness to have a ferry crossing as part of this route led to the A90 number being assigned instead.
There was a period of renewed lobbying for a road crossing in the 1920s and 1930s, at which time the only vehicle crossing was a single passenger and vehicle ferry. Sir William Denny championed the expansion of that service in the 1930s, providing and operating on behalf of the London and North Eastern Railway two additional ferries that aimed to supplement the services of the adjacent railway bridge. Their success allowed for the addition of two more craft in the 1940s and 1950s, by which time the ferries were making 40,000 crossings annually, carrying 1.5 million passengers and 800,000 vehicles.

DesignEdit
With the then newest and nearest bridge spanning the Forth (the Kincardine Bridge, built in 1936) still around 15 miles (24 km) upstream, the upsurge in demand for a road crossing between Edinburgh and Fife prompted the UK Government to establish the Forth Road Bridge Joint Board (FRBJB) by Act of Parliament in 1947 to oversee the implementation of a new bridge to replace the ferry service. In 1955 the authorities on either side investigated and drew up an alternative scheme for a tunnel beneath the estuary. This was known as the Maunsell Scheme, and was projected to run somewhat closer to the rail bridge than the present road bridge. The scheme was abandoned as being too ambitious and reverted to a bridge concept.

ConstructionEdit

The final construction plan was accepted in February 1958 and work began in September of that year. Mott, Hay and Anderson and Freeman Fox and Partners carried out the design work and a joint venture of Sir William Arrol & Co., Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company and Dorman Long constructed the bridge at a cost of Â£11.5 million, while the total cost of the project including road connections and realignments was Â£19.5 million.
It was the longest steel suspension bridge in Europe. 210,000 tons of concrete were involved in its construction, with nine miles of grade-separated dual-carriageway approach roads. Reed and Mallik (known for Reema construction of houses) of Salisbury, Wiltshire, built the approach viaducts.
There were twenty four individual bridges built for the approach roads. The 4.5-mile southern approach road of the A90 began at Cramond Bridge, over the River Almond on the western outskirts of Edinburgh, near Craigiehall. There were two-level interchanges built at Burnshot, Dolphington (B924) and the Echline junction (A904 and B800). At Dalmeny there was a bridge over the railway. The southern approach roads were built by A.M. Carmichael Ltd. The 4-mile northern approach road had three two-level junctions at Ferry Toll (for the B980), Admiralty (for Rosyth Dockyard via the A985, and Inverkeithing via the A921) and at Mastertown/Masterton (for what would be the fledgling M90 southern terminus). The Masterton junction was an octopus junction, a variation of a clover-leaf junction, having six bridges and a 600 ft viaduct. There were fifteen bridges built for this approach road. The northern approach road terminated as the A823(M) at a roundabout with the A823 south of Dunfermline, next
to Rosyth railway station. The northern approach roads were built by Whatlings Ltd of Glasgow, later bought by Alfred McAlpine.
Seven lives were lost during construction before the bridge was opened by Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh on 4 September 1964. The ferry service was discontinued as of that date.

OperationEdit
The bridge's management was delegated to the FRBJB, and remained so until 2002 when its operation was transferred to a new body with a wider remit, the Forth Estuary Transport Authority.
On 1 December 2010 the bridge was closed for the first time due to heavy snow. After several accidents meant snowploughs were unable to clear the carriageways, the bridge was closed in both directions at 6.40 a.m. and remained closed for several hours. As part of celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of the bridge's operation, artist Kate Downie was commissioned to create a print of the bridge and hold an exhibition of works portraying it.
On 1 June 2015 Amey took over the maintenance and operating of the bridge on behalf of Transport Scotland from the Forth Estuary Transport Authority and are now called the Forth Bridges Unit.

StatisticsEdit

The bridge's central main span is 1,006 metres (3,301 ft) long, its two side spans are each 408 metres (1,339 ft) long, and the approach viaducts are 252 metres (827 ft) on the north side and 438 metres (1,437 ft) on the south side. At a total length of 2,512 metres (8,241 ft), it was the longest suspension bridge span outside the United States and the fourth-longest span in the world at the time of its construction. The bridge comprises 39,000 tonnes of steel and 115,000 cubic metres of concrete. The towers reach 156 metres (512 ft) above mean water level. Its width comprises a dual carriageway road with two lanes in each direction bounded by cycle/footpaths on each side. The main strung cables are 590 millimetres (23 in) in diameter and each cable carries 13,800 tonnes of the bridge's load suspended by 11,618 high tensile wires, each five millimetres in diameter.
The bridge forms a crucial part of the corridor between south-east and north-east Scotland, linking Edinburgh to Perth, Dundee and Aberdeen by the A90 road and its sister M90 motorway, which begins 1.67 miles (2.69 km) north of the bridge's northern terminus. The bridge carried around 2.5 million vehicles in its first year but the annual figure has risen steadily over time to around 21.4 million vehicles in 2008. The bridge carried its 250 millionth vehicle in 2002.
It was awarded Historic Scotland's Category A listed structure status in 2001.

Tolling issuesEdit
On 11 February 2008 tolls were abolished on the bridge.
Initially, it was suggested that tolling would cease once the original cost of construction plus the accrued interest was repaid â€" this was done in 1993 and it was planned that tolls would not be levied after May 1995. However, the legislation enabling the levying of tolls was instead renewed by Parliament (originally that of the UK but now the responsibility of the Scottish Parliament) on three separate occasions in 1998, 2003 and 2006.
Originally, a toll was paid for each direction of travel with sets of toll booths on both carriageways. In 1997, a decision was made to double the northbound toll (then 40p, to 80p) and remove the southbound toll. The belief was that almost all traffic makes a return journey across the bridge, and that the removal of the southbound toll would result in a reduction of congestion for southbound traffic without reducing overall toll revenues.
The Forth Estuary Transport Authority (FETA) justified the continued use of tolls by suggesting they were necessary to fund maintenance and improvement works. These included the construction of defences around the submerged piers forming the bases of the main towers in the event of collision in the Firth. The main towers were also strengthened with internal steel columns (the original tower structure was hollow) and had hydraulic rams jack up these sections to transfer a portion of the load to the new steelwork. Also, the vertical cables suspending the deck had their bolts replaced after a single detected failure. A new paint system required development for the bridge (the original was phased out due to environmental concerns).

Variable tolling proposalsEdit
In late 2005, FETA's committee approved a proposal for a complete revamp of the system of toll levies. The minimum toll would be set to the existing Â£1 figure, but would increase dependent on the time of day, rising to a maximum of Â£4 for evening rush hour travel. All tolls would be halved for cars with more than one occupant, as an incentive to drivers to share cars and make fewer journeys. According to FETA's chairman Lawrence Marshall, the system would provide the most efficiency, claiming that 80% of peak-time journeys are made by single-occupant vehicles. The proposal, passed with the chairman's casting vote after the committee was deadlocked, was referred to the Scottish Executive in December 2005, and implementation planned for October 2007 subject to approval by transport minister Tavish Scott. Environmental groups welcomed the proposal, although local politicians condemned it as simply a means of raising capital. At the same time, a counter-argument was tabled by Fife coun
cillors proposing the complete removal of tolls.
The Scottish Parliament debated the proposals in January 2006, and the affair became a major political issue after Westminster-based MPs Gordon Brown and Alistair Darling (Chancellor of the Exchequer and Secretary of State for Scotland respectively) were seen to describe the variable tolling plan as "dead in the water". Scottish First Minister Jack McConnell insisted his Labour Party colleagues were misquoted and himself refused to rule out the plan, receiving considerable condemnation from the opposition Scottish National Party.
The political situation was particularly important given that by late January 2006, campaigning was under way for the Dunfermline and West Fife by-election, 2006 scheduled to take place for the Westminster constituency in which the north end of the bridge is situated. The by-election, scheduled for 9 February, was contested by - in addition to the major political parties in Scotland - an Abolish Forth Bridge Tolls Party. It was won by Liberal Democrat candidate Willie Rennie, overturning a large Labour majority on a 16% swing.
In the aftermath of the by-election defeat, media speculation suggested the Executive had turned against the proposals, and Tavish Scott eventually confirmed their rejection and the retention of the existing toll structure on 1 March 2006. FETA condemned the decision, while local opposition MSPs charged the minister that his tolling review short-changed Fifers as tolls were axed on the Erskine Bridge leaving tolls on only the Forth and Tay Road Bridge.

AbolitionEdit
Following the formation of an SNP minority government after the Scottish parliamentary election of May 2007, a new debate on the abolition of tolls was opened by Transport Minister Stewart Stevenson on 31 May 2007, where it was agreed by a large majority. Toll levies at that point totalled Â£16 million annually.
The Abolition of Bridge Tolls (Scotland) Bill, required to revoke legislation mandating toll collection on the bridge, was introduced to the Scottish Parliament on 3 September 2007, passed on 20 December 2007, and received royal assent on 24 January 2008. The tolls were removed on 11 February 2008 at 00:01 GMT. Ironically this immediately followed a major upgrade and reconfiguration of the tolls on the northbound carriageway (the toll on the southbound carriageway had been removed some years before, simplifying the arrangement as most journeys were, and remain, two-way).

Structural issuesEdit

There has been concern at FETA over the structural wear-and-tear of the bridge. The planned theoretical capacity for the bridge (30,000 vehicles per day in each direction) is routinely exceeded as traffic levels have outstripped predictions. FETA predicted that traffic could rise to an average of 40,000 vehicles per day in each direction by 2010, while the Scottish Government stated that 60,000 vehicles travel on more than half the days in a year. This raised concerns about the lifespan of the bridge, originally planned at 120 years.
2003 saw an inspection programme launched (at a cost of Â£1.2 million) to assess the condition of the bridge's main suspension cables after excessive corrosion was discovered in a number of older bridges in the United States of a similar design and size. The study, which was completed in 2005, found that the main cables had suffered an estimated 8â€"10% loss of strength. Future projections highlight the likelihood of an accelerating loss of strength, with traffic restrictions to limit loading required in 2014 in the worst-case scenario, followed by full closure as early as 2020.
Further monitoring and remedial work is now under way. An acoustic monitoring system, commissioned in August 2006, uses listening devices to monitor any further strands snapping and pinpoint their location within the main cables.
Given the significance of the findings of the first internal inspection, in November 2005 the Scottish Executive appointed Flint & Neill Partnership to audit the results. The purpose of the audit was to carry out a desk study of the findings and to advise the Scottish Executive whether those findings were reached using a process of appropriate rigour and whether the conclusions were reasonable. Flint & Neill appointed New Yorkâ€"based Ammann & Whitney to act as sub-consultants providing specialist advice using experience gained from inspections and assessments carried out in America. In January 2006, an audit report to the Scottish Executive concluded that FETA's consultant had performed the initial internal inspection and cable strength calculation in accordance with accepted practice in the United States and in general conformance with accepted industry guidelines published in 2004 by the NCHRP. Flint & Neill noted that the initial investigation by FETA "was not prompted by the dis
covery of any concerns with the Forth Road Bridge cables but as a prudent response to the results of findings in the USA. When the original scope for this initial investigation was determined, the severity of the findings was not anticipated." The audit report suggested that traffic restrictions could be required as early as 2013.
A number of options are being implemented to increase the bridge's lifespan. These include an extensive dehumidification programme to slow the rate of corrosion in the main cables by installing a system that will keep the air in the voids between the strands that make up the main cables at a humidity level of below 40%. Engineering consultants Faber Maunsell began work on the project in 2006. The works are planned to take two and a half years at a cost of Â£7.8 million. As part of the works, some of the corroded cable strands are to be spliced.
The southbound carriageway of the bridge was closed on 1 December 2015 due to the discovery of steelwork defects during routine inspections. Subsequently a 7.5 tonne weight limit was put in place (public service buses were not included). On 4 December, the bridge was fully closed because of structural faults and was initially not expected to reopen until the new year following further inspections and repair work. Following the closure, Transport Scotland began work to lay on extra trains and buses and consider whether to reintroduce a ferry service to mitigate the impact on travellers. The closure has resulted in tailbacks approaching the Kincardine Bridge, which is the alternative route across the Forth from Fife to Edinburgh. On 22 December it was announced that the Road Bridge would reopen the following day for all traffic except heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), with current expectations being that the bridge will reopen to HGVs around mid-February.

Additional crossing at QueensferryEdit

The strategic transport importance of the road bridge and the threat of closure by 2020 if major structural work were not undertaken led to fears of serious economic consequences, especially as work on any new crossing could take a decade.
Increasing traffic levels across the Firth of Forth had also led to the construction of the Clackmannanshire Bridge adjacent to the existing Kincardine Bridge. This bridge opened in November 2008.
Proposals for a second road crossing at Queensferry had been made in the 1990s, but were subsequently shelved, despite preliminary work on route selection. Following the discovery of potentially serious structural issues with the Forth Road Bridge in 2005 the proposals were revisited and plans advanced. The decision to proceed with a replacement bridge was taken at the end of 2007, and it was announced the following year that the existing bridge would be retained, as a public transport link. The Forth Crossing Act received Royal Assent in January 2011, and construction began in September 2011. The Queensferry Crossing is being constructed as a cable-stayed bridge, with an overall length of 1.7 miles (2.7 km). Around 2.5 miles (4.0 km) of new connecting roads are being built, including new and upgraded junctions at Ferrytoll in Fife, South Queensferry, and Junction 1a on the M9. The new bridge will continue the M90 motorway, (extending its southern terminus) from Admiralty to the M9 j
unction 1a (re-numbering the M9 spur).

See alsoEdit

List of bridges in Scotland
List of longest suspension bridge spans

ReferencesEdit

External linksEdit
Official website
Forth Estuary Transport Authority
Bridges Visitor Centre Trust - Home Page

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